SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Tacit programming</title>

</head>

Tacit programming

</h1>

</header>

Tacit programming, also called point-free style, is a <a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">programming paradigm</a> in which function definitions do not identify the <a href="Parameter_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameter (computer science)">arguments</a> (or "points") on which they operate. Instead the definitions merely <a href="Function_composition_(computer_science)" title="Function composition (computer science)">compose</a> other functions, among which are <a href="Combinatory_logic" title="Combinatory logic">combinators</a> that manipulate the arguments. Tacit programming is of theoretical interest, because the strict use of composition results in programs that are well adapted for <a href="Equational_logic" title="Equational logic">equational</a> reasoning.<a href="#cite_note-cunha2005-1">[1]</a> It is also the natural style of certain <a href="Programming_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Programming languages">programming languages</a>, including <a href="APL_(programming_language)" title="APL (programming language)">APL</a> and its derivatives,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> and <a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">concatenative languages</a> such as <a href="Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming language)">Forth</a>. The lack of argument naming gives point-free style a reputation of being unnecessarily obscure, hence the <a href="Epithet" title="Epithet">epithet</a> "pointless style".<a href="#cite_note-cunha2005-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> <a href="Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">scripting</a> uses the paradigm with <a href="Pipeline_(Unix)" title="Pipeline (Unix)">pipes</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Python">Python</h3></div>

Tacit programming can be illustrated with the following <a href="Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a> code. A sequence of operations such as the following:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-python mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>def example(x):

return baz(bar(foo(x)))

</pre></div>

... can be written in point-free style as the composition of a sequence of functions, without parameters:<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-python mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>from functools import partial, reduce

def compose(*fns):

return partial(reduce, lambda v, fn: fn(v), fns)

example = compose(foo, bar, baz)

</pre></div>

For a more complex example, the Haskell code <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">p = ((.) f) . g</code> can be translated as:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-python mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>p = partial(compose, partial(compose, f), g)

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_programming">Functional programming</h3></div>

A simple example (in <a href="Haskell_(programming_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haskell (programming language)">Haskell</a>) is a program which computes the sum of a list of numbers. We can define the sum function recursively using a pointed style (cf. <a href="Value-level_programming" title="Value-level programming">value-level programming</a>) as:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-haskell mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>sum (x:xs) = x + sum xs

sum [] = 0

</pre></div>

However, using a <a href="Fold_(higher-order_function)" title="Fold (higher-order function)">fold</a> we can replace this with:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-haskell mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>sum xs = foldr (+) 0 xs

</pre></div>

And then the argument is not needed, so this simplifies to

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-haskell mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>sum = foldr (+) 0

</pre></div>

which is point-free.

Another example uses <a href="Function_composition_(computer_science)" title="Function composition (computer science)">function composition</a>:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-haskell mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>p x y z = f (g x y) z

</pre></div>

The following Haskell-like pseudo-code exposes how to reduce a function definition to its point-free equivalent:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-haskell mw-content-ltr mw-highlight-lines" dir="ltr"><pre>p = \x -> \y -> \z -> f (g x y) z

= \x -> \y -> f (g x y)

= \x -> \y -> (f . (g x)) y

(* Here the infix compose operator "." is used as a curried function. *)

= \x -> ((.) f) (g x)

= \x -> (((.) f) . g) x

p = ((.) f) . g

</pre></div>

Finally, to see a complex example imagine a map filter program which takes a list, applies a function to it, and then filters the elements based on a criterion

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-haskell mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>mf criteria operator list = filter criteria (map operator list)

</pre></div>

It can be expressed point-free<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> as

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-haskell mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>mf = (. map) . (.) . filter

</pre></div>Note that, as stated previously, the points in 'point-free' refer to the arguments, not to the use of dots; a common misconception.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

A few programs have been written to automatically convert a Haskell expression to a point-free form.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="APL_family">APL family</h3></div>

In <a href="J_(programming_language)" title="J (programming language)">J</a>, the same sort of point-free code occurs in a function made to compute the average of a list (array) of numbers:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-j mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>avg=: +/ % #

</pre></div>

<code>+/</code> sums the items of the array by mapping (<code>/</code>) summation (<code>+</code>) to the array. <code>%</code> divides the sum by the number of elements (<code>#</code>) in the array.

<a href="Euler's_formula" title="Euler's formula">Euler's formula</a> <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle e^{ix}=\cos x+i\sin x,}">

<msup>

</mrow>

</msup>

</mstyle>

</mrow>

<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle e^{ix}=\cos x+i\sin x,}</annotation>

</semantics>

</math><img src="./aab1fcd1a6db5cc6678bb9cbd871580eeeb86eda.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:19.999ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle e^{ix}=\cos x+i\sin x,}" loading="lazy"> expressed tacitly:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-j mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>cos =: 2 o. ]

sin =: 1 o. ]

Euler =: ^@j. = cos j. sin

</pre></div>

(<code>j.</code> is a primitive function whose monadic definition is <code>0j1</code> times x and whose dyadic definition is <code>x+0j1×y</code>.) The same tacit computations expressed in <a href="APL_(programming_language)#Dyalog_APL" title="APL (programming language)">Dyalog APL</a>:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-apl mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>avg ← +⌿ ÷ ≢

cos ← 2 ○ ⊢

sin ← 1 ○ ⊢

EulerCalc← cos + 0j1 × sin ⍝ 0j1 is what's usually written as i

EulerDirect← *0J1×⊢ ⍝ Same as ¯12○⊢

⍝ Do the 2 methods produce the same result?

EulerCheck← EulerDirect=EulerCalc

EulerCheck ¯1 1 2 3

1 1 1 1

⍝ Yes, so far so good!

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stack-based">Stack-based</h3></div>

In <a href="Stack-oriented_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Stack-oriented programming language">stack-oriented programming languages</a> (and <a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">concatenative ones</a>, most of which are stack based), point-free methods are commonly used. For example, a procedure to compute the <a href="Fibonacci_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibonacci number">Fibonacci numbers</a> might look like the following in <a href="PostScript" title="PostScript">PostScript</a>:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-postscript mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>/fib

{

dup dup 1 eq exch 0 eq or not

{

dup 1 sub fib

exch 2 sub fib

add

} if

} def

</pre></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pipelines">Pipelines</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unix_pipeline">Unix pipeline</h4></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Pipeline_(Unix)" title="Pipeline (Unix)">Pipeline (Unix)</a></div>

In Unix scripting the functions are computer programs which receive data from <a href="Standard_streams" title="Standard streams">standard input</a> and send the results to <a href="Standard_streams" title="Standard streams">standard output</a>. For example,

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-bash mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>sort | uniq -c | sort -rn

</pre></div>

is a tacit or point-free composition which returns the counts of its arguments and the arguments, in the order of decreasing counts. The 'sort' and 'uniq' are the functions, the '-c' and '-rn' control the functions, but the arguments are not mentioned. The pipe '|' is the composition operator.

Due to the way pipelines work, it is only normally possible to pass one "argument" at a time in the form of a pair of standard input/output stream. Although extra <a href="File_descriptor" title="File descriptor">file descriptors</a> can be opened from <a href="Named_pipe" title="Named pipe">named pipes</a>, this no longer constitutes a point-free style.

<a href="Jq_(programming_language)" title="Jq (programming language)">jq</a> is a JSON-oriented programming language in which

the '|' symbol is used to connect filters to form a pipeline

in a familiar way. For example:

<pre> [1,2] | add

</pre>

evaluates to 3. (Yes, the JSON array is a jq filter that evaluates to an array.)

Although similar to Unix pipelines, jq pipelines allow the

incoming data to be sent to more than one recipient on the

RHS of the '|' as though in parallel. For example, the program `add/length`

will compute the average of the numbers in an array, so that:

<pre> [1,2] | add/length

</pre>

evaluates to 1.5

Similarly:

<pre> [1,2] | [length, add, add/length]

</pre>

evaluates to [2,3,1.5]

A dot ('.') can be used to define an attachment point on the RHS, e.g.:

<pre> 1 | [., .]

</pre>

evaluates to [1,1]

and similarly:

<pre> 2 | pow(.; .)

</pre>

evaluates to 4 since pow(x;y) is x to the power y.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Fibonacci_sequence">Fibonacci sequence</h5></div>

A tacit jq program for generating the Fibonacci sequence would be:

<pre> [0,1] | recurse( [last, add] ) | first

</pre>

Here, [0,1] is the initial pair to be taken as the first two items

in the Fibonacci sequence. (The pair [1,1] could likewise be used for

the variant definition.)

The alphabetic tokens are built-in filters: `first` and `last`

emit the first and last elements of their input arrays respectively;

and `recurse(f)` applies a filter, f, to its input recursively.

jq also allows new filters to be defined in a tacit style, e.g.:

<pre> def fib: [0,1] | recurse( [last, add] ) | first;

</pre>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Composition_of_unary_functions">Composition of unary functions</h5></div>

In the section on Python in this article, the following Python definition is considered:

</pre></div>

In point-free style, this could be written in Python as:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-python mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>example = compose(foo, bar, baz)

</pre></div>

In jq, the equivalent point-free definition would be:

<pre> def example: foo | bar | baz;

</pre>

<ul><li><a href="Combinatory_logic" title="Combinatory logic">Combinatory logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">Concatenative programming language</a></li>

<li><a href="Function-level_programming" title="Function-level programming">Function-level programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Joy_(programming_language)" title="Joy (programming language)">Joy (programming language)</a>, modern highly tacit language</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

<li id="cite_note-cunha2005-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cunha2005_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cunha2005_1-1">b</a> Manuel Alcino Pereira da Cunha (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/1822/2869">Point-free Program Calculation</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> W. Neville Holmes, ed. (2006) Computers and People

</li>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://concatenative.org/wiki/view/Concatenative%20language/Name%20code%20not%20values">"Name code not values"</a>. Concatenative.org. Retrieved 13 September 2013.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haskell.org/pipermail/haskell-cafe/2006-September/017758.html">pipermail</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.haskell.org/Pointfree#But_pointfree_has_more_points.21">"Pointfree - HaskellWiki"</a>. wiki.haskell.org. Retrieved 2016-06-05.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://function-level.github.io/">From Function-Level Programming to Pointfree Style</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=114065&dl=GUIDE&coll=GUIDE">Pure Functions in APL and J</a> How to use tacit programming in any APL-like language</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dirkgerrits.com/publications/john-backus.pdf#section.8">Closed applicative languages 1971 - 1976 ff</a>, in John W. Backus (Publications)</li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Programming_paradigms_(Comparison_by_language)368" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Programming_paradigms_(Comparison_by_language)368" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Programming_paradigm" title="Programming paradigm">Programming paradigms</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_multi-paradigm_programming_languages" title="Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages">Comparison by language</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Imperative_programming" title="Imperative programming">Imperative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Jackson_structured_programming" title="Jackson structured programming">Jackson structures</a></li>

<li><a href="Block_(programming)" title="Block (programming)">Block-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Modular_programming" title="Modular programming">Modular</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-structured_programming" title="Non-structured programming">Non-structured</a></li>

<li><a href="Procedural_programming" title="Procedural programming">Procedural</a></li>

<li><a href="Programming_in_the_large_and_programming_in_the_small" title="Programming in the large and programming in the small">Programming in the large and in the small</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_by_contract" title="Design by contract">Design by contract</a></li>

<li><a href="Invariant-based_programming" title="Invariant-based programming">Invariant-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Nested_function" title="Nested function">Nested function</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented programming">Object-oriented</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_programming_languages_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Comparison of programming languages (object-oriented programming)">comparison</a>, <a href="List_of_object-oriented_programming_languages" title="List of object-oriented programming languages">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">Class-based</a>, <a href="Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">Prototype-based</a>, <a href="Object-based_language" title="Object-based language">Object-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Agent-oriented_programming" title="Agent-oriented programming">Agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Immutable_object" title="Immutable object">Immutable object</a></li>

<li><a href="Persistent_programming_language" title="Persistent programming language">Persistent</a></li>

<li><a href="Uniform_function_call_syntax" title="Uniform function call syntax">Uniform function call syntax</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Declarative_programming" title="Declarative programming">Declarative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_functional_programming_languages" title="Comparison of functional programming languages">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer science)">Recursive</a></li>

<li><a href="Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a> (<a href="Partial_application" title="Partial application">Partial application</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Higher-order_programming" title="Higher-order programming">Higher-order</a></li>

<li><a href="Purely_functional_programming" title="Purely functional programming">Purely functional</a></li>

<li><a href="Total_functional_programming" title="Total functional programming">Total</a></li>

<li><a href="Strict_programming_language" title="Strict programming language">Strict</a></li>

<li><a href="Generalized_algebraic_data_type" title="Generalized algebraic data type">GADTs</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependent_type" title="Dependent type">Dependent types</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_logic_programming" title="Functional logic programming">Functional logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Expression-oriented_programming_language" title="Expression-oriented programming language">Expression-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Applicative_programming_language" title="Applicative programming language">Applicative</a>, <a href="Concatenative_programming_language" title="Concatenative programming language">Concatenative</a></li>

<li><a href="Function-level_programming" title="Function-level programming">Function-level</a>, <a href="Value-level_programming" title="Value-level programming">Value-level</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Dataflow_programming" title="Dataflow programming">Dataflow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flow-based_programming" title="Flow-based programming">Flow-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Reactive_programming" title="Reactive programming">Reactive</a> (<a href="Functional_reactive_programming" title="Functional reactive programming">Functional reactive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Signal_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal programming">Signals</a></li>

<li><a href="Stream_processing" title="Stream processing">Streams</a></li>

<li><a href="Synchronous_programming_language" title="Synchronous programming language">Synchronous</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Logic_programming" title="Logic programming">Logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abductive_logic_programming" title="Abductive logic programming">Abductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Answer_set_programming" title="Answer set programming">Answer set</a></li>

<li><a href="Constraint_programming" title="Constraint programming">Constraint</a> (<a href="Constraint_logic_programming" title="Constraint logic programming">Constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Inductive_logic_programming" title="Inductive logic programming">Inductive logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Nondeterministic_programming" title="Nondeterministic programming">Nondeterministic</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_language" title="Ontology language">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_logic_programming" title="Probabilistic logic programming">Probabilistic logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Query_language" title="Query language">Query</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Domain-specific_language" title="Domain-specific language">DSL</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Algebraic_modeling_language" title="Algebraic modeling language">Algebraic modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Array_programming" title="Array programming">Array</a></li>

<li><a href="Automata-based_programming" title="Automata-based programming">Automata-based</a> (<a href="Action_language" title="Action language">Action</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Command_language" title="Command language">Command</a> (<a href="Spacecraft_command_language" title="Spacecraft command language">Spacecraft</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Differentiable_programming" title="Differentiable programming">Differentiable</a></li>

<li><a href="Grammar-oriented_programming" title="Grammar-oriented programming">Grammar-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Interface_description_language" title="Interface description language">Interface description</a></li>

<li><a href="Language-oriented_programming" title="Language-oriented programming">Language-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">List comprehension</a></li>

<li><a href="Modeling_language" title="Modeling language">Modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural-language_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural-language programming">Natural language</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Page_description_language" title="Page description language">Page description</a></li>

<li><a href="Pipeline_(software)" title="Pipeline (software)">Pipes</a> and <a href="Filter_(software)" title="Filter (software)">filters</a></li>

<li><a href="Probabilistic_programming" title="Probabilistic programming">Probabilistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_programming" title="Quantum programming">Quantum</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_programming_language" title="Scientific programming language">Scientific</a></li>

<li><a href="Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">Scripting</a></li>

<li><a href="Set_theoretic_programming" title="Set theoretic programming">Set-theoretic</a></li>

<li><a href="Simulation_language" title="Simulation language">Simulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Stack-oriented_programming" title="Stack-oriented programming">Stack-based</a></li>

<li><a href="System_programming_language" title="System programming language">System</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_programming_language" title="Tactile programming language">Tactile</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_processor" title="Template processor">Templating</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_language" title="Transformation language">Transformation</a> (<a href="Graph_rewriting" title="Graph rewriting">Graph rewriting</a>, <a href="Production_system_(computer_science)" title="Production system (computer science)">Production</a>, <a href="Pattern_matching" title="Pattern matching">Pattern</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Visual_programming_language" title="Visual programming language">Visual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Concurrent_computing" title="Concurrent computing">Concurrent</a>, <a href="Distributed_computing" title="Distributed computing">distributed</a>, <a href="Parallel_computing" title="Parallel computing">parallel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actor_model" title="Actor model">Actor-based</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_mutual_exclusion" title="Automatic mutual exclusion">Automatic mutual exclusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Choreographic_programming" title="Choreographic programming">Choreographic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_logic_programming" title="Concurrent logic programming">Concurrent logic</a> (<a href="Concurrent_constraint_logic_programming" title="Concurrent constraint logic programming">Concurrent constraint logic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Concurrent_object-oriented_programming" title="Concurrent object-oriented programming">Concurrent OO</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroprogramming" title="Macroprogramming">Macroprogramming</a></li>

<li><a href="Multitier_programming" title="Multitier programming">Multitier programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_computing" title="Organic computing">Organic computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Parallel_programming_model" title="Parallel programming model">Parallel programming models</a></li>

<li><a href="Partitioned_global_address_space" title="Partitioned global address space">Partitioned global address space</a></li>

<li><a href="Process-oriented_programming" title="Process-oriented programming">Process-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Relativistic_programming" title="Relativistic programming">Relativistic programming</a></li>

<li><a href="Service-oriented_programming" title="Service-oriented programming">Service-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Structured_concurrency" title="Structured concurrency">Structured concurrency</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Metaprogramming" title="Metaprogramming">Metaprogramming</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Attribute-oriented_programming" title="Attribute-oriented programming">Attribute-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Automatic_programming" title="Automatic programming">Automatic</a> (<a href="Inductive_programming" title="Inductive programming">Inductive</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Dynamic_programming_language" title="Dynamic programming language">Dynamic</a></li>

<li><a href="Extensible_programming" title="Extensible programming">Extensible</a></li>

<li><a href="Generic_programming" title="Generic programming">Generic</a></li>

<li><a href="Homoiconicity" title="Homoiconicity">Homoiconicity</a></li>

<li><a href="Interactive_programming" title="Interactive programming">Interactive</a></li>

<li><a href="Macro_(computer_science)" title="Macro (computer science)">Macro</a> (<a href="Hygienic_macro" title="Hygienic macro">Hygienic</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Metalinguistic_abstraction" title="Metalinguistic abstraction">Metalinguistic abstraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-stage_programming" title="Multi-stage programming">Multi-stage</a></li>

<li><a href="Program_synthesis" title="Program synthesis">Program synthesis</a> (<a href="Bayesian_program_synthesis" title="Bayesian program synthesis">Bayesian</a>, <a href="Inferential_programming" title="Inferential programming">Inferential</a>, <a href="Programming_by_demonstration" title="Programming by demonstration">by demonstration</a>, <a href="Programming_by_example" title="Programming by example">by example</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reflective_programming" title="Reflective programming">Reflective</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-modifying_code" title="Self-modifying code">Self-modifying code</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbolic_programming" title="Symbolic programming">Symbolic</a></li>

<li><a href="Template_metaprogramming" title="Template metaprogramming">Template</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Separation_of_concerns" title="Separation of concerns">Separation of concerns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aspect-oriented_programming" title="Aspect-oriented programming">Aspects</a></li>

<li><a href="Component-based_software_engineering" title="Component-based software engineering">Components</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-driven_programming" title="Data-driven programming">Data-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Data-oriented_design" title="Data-oriented design">Data-oriented</a></li>

<li><a href="Event-driven_programming" title="Event-driven programming">Event-driven</a></li>

<li><a href="Feature-oriented_programming" title="Feature-oriented programming">Features</a></li>

<li><a href="Literate_programming" title="Literate programming">Literate</a></li>

<li><a href="Role-oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Roles</a></li>

<li><a href="Subject-oriented_programming" title="Subject-oriented programming">Subjects</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-04-03" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Tacit_programming&oldid=1283676462">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>